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All organisms, from bacteria to complex animals, ap biology cell division essay, must be able to store, retrieve, and transmit genetic information to continue life. Prokaryotes have single circular chromosome of DNA, whereas eukaryotes have multiple, linear chromosomes ap biology cell division essay of chromatin DNA wrapped around a histone protein surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Cell division involves both mitosis, the division of the chromosomes, and cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm.
Human somatic cells consist of 46 chromosomes—22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. Prior to mitosis, each chromosome is duplicated to ensure that daughter cells receive the full amount of hereditary material contributed by both parents.
The total number of autosomal chromosomes is referred to as the diploid 2 n number. In the next chapter, we will study meiosis, the second type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms. Information presented and the examples highlighted in the section support concepts and Learning Objectives outlined in Big Idea 3 of the AP ® Biology Curriculum Framework, as shown in the table.
The Learning Objectives listed in the Curriculum Framework provide a transparent foundation for the AP ® Biology course, an inquiry-based laboratory experience, instructional activities, and AP ® exam questions.
A Learning Objective merges required content with one or more of the seven Science Practices. Ask students to bring in a picture of themselves as a baby, and a current picture. Ask them how do we change from a baby to an adult? What process is required to generate new cells? The continuity of life from one cell to another has its foundation in the reproduction of cells by way of the cell cycle. The mechanisms involved in the cell cycle are highly regulated. In prokaryotes, the genome is composed of a single, double-stranded DNA molecule in the form of a loop or circle Figure The region in the cell containing this genetic material is called a nucleoid.
Some prokaryotes also have smaller loops of DNA called plasmids that are not essential for normal growth. Bacteria can exchange these plasmids with other bacteria, sometimes receiving beneficial new genes that the recipient can add to their chromosomal DNA. Antibiotic resistance is one trait that often spreads through a bacterial colony through plasmid exchange.
In eukaryotes, the genome consists of several double-stranded linear DNA molecules Figure Each species of eukaryotes has a characteristic number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its cells. Human body cells have 46 chromosomes, while human gametes sperm or eggs have 23 chromosomes each. A typical body cell, or somatic cell, contains two matched sets of chromosomes, a configuration known as diploid. The letter n is used to represent a single set of chromosomes; therefore, a diploid organism is designated 2 n.
Human cells that contain one set of chromosomes are called gametes, or sex cells; these are eggs and sperm, and are designated 1nor haploid. Homologous chromosomes are the same length and have specific nucleotide segments called genes in exactly the same location, or locus, ap biology cell division essay.
Genes, the functional units of chromosomes, determine specific characteristics by coding for specific proteins. Traits are the variations of those characteristics. For example, hair color is a characteristic with traits that are blonde, brown, or black. Each copy of a homologous pair of chromosomes originates from a different parent; therefore, the genes themselves are not identical.
The variation of individuals within a species is due to the specific combination of the genes inherited from both parents. Even a slightly altered sequence of nucleotides within a gene can result in an alternative trait. For example, there are three possible gene sequences on the human chromosome that code for blood type: sequence A, sequence B, and sequence O.
Because all diploid human cells have two copies of the chromosome that determines blood type, the blood type the trait is determined by which two versions of the marker ap biology cell division essay are inherited. It is possible to have two copies of the same gene sequence on both homologous chromosomes, with one on each ap biology cell division essay example, AA, BB, or OOap biology cell division essay, or two different sequences, such as AB.
Minor variations of traits, such as blood type, eye color, and handedness, contribute to the natural variation found within a species. However, if the entire DNA sequence from any pair of human homologous chromosomes is compared, the difference is less than one percent. The sex chromosomes, X and Y, are the single exception to the rule of homologous chromosome uniformity: Other than a small amount of homology that is necessary to accurately produce gametes, the genes found on the X and Y chromosomes are different.
If the DNA from all 46 chromosomes in a human cell nucleus was laid out end to end, it would ap biology cell division essay approximately two meters; however, its diameter would be only 2 nm. At the same time, it must also be readily accessible for the genes to be expressed. During some stages ap biology cell division essay the cell cycle, the long strands of DNA are condensed into compact chromosomes. There are a number of ways that chromosomes are compacted.
In the first level of compaction, short stretches of the DNA double helix wrap around a core of eight histone proteins at regular intervals along the entire length of the chromosome Figure The DNA-histone complex is part of the chromatin. Each beadlike histone-DNA complex is called a nucleosomeand DNA connecting the nucleosomes is called linker DNA.
A DNA molecule in ap biology cell division essay form is about seven times shorter than the double helix without the histones, and the beads are about 10 nm in diameter, in contrast with the 2-nm diameter of a DNA double helix. The next level of compaction occurs as the nucleosomes and the linker DNA between them are coiled into a nm chromatin fiber.
This coiling further shortens the chromosome so that it is now about 50 times shorter than the extended form. In the third level of packing, a variety of fibrous proteins is used to pack the chromatin. These fibrous proteins also ensure that each chromosome in a non-dividing cell occupies a particular area of the nucleus that does not overlap with that of any other chromosome see the top image in Figure DNA replicates in the S phase of interphase.
After replication, the chromosomes are composed of two linked sister chromatids. When fully compact, the pairs of identically packed chromosomes are bound to each other by cohesin proteins. The connection between the sister chromatids is closest in a region called the centromere. The conjoined sister chromatids, ap biology cell division essay, with a diameter of about 1 µm, are visible under a light microscope. The centromeric region is highly condensed and thus will appear as a constricted area.
This animation illustrates the different levels of chromosome packing. This question is an application of Learning Objective 3.
Each chromosome contains hundreds and sometimes thousands of genes, segments of DNA that code for a polypeptide or RNA, and a large amount of DNA with no known function, ap biology cell division essay. Noncoding DNA includes introns. Some noncoding DNA controls the expression of nearby genes, but most of it has unknown functions yet to be discovered.
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Skip to Content Go to accessibility page. Biology for AP® Courses My highlights. Table of ap biology cell division essay. The Chemistry of Life. The Cell. Evolutionary Processes. Biological Diversity. Plant Structure and Function. Animal Structure and Function. Learning Objectives In this section, you will explore the following question: What is the relationship between chromosomes, genes, and traits in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Connection for AP ® Courses All organisms, from bacteria to complex animals, must be able to store, retrieve, and transmit genetic information to continue life. Big Idea 3 Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes. Enduring Understanding 3. A Heritable information provides for continuity of life.
Essential Knowledge 3. Science Practice 6. Learning Objective 3. Figure The condensed chromosomes are viewed within the nucleus topremoved from a cell in mitosis and spread out on a slide rightand artificially arranged according to length left ; an arrangement like this is called a karyotype. In this image, the chromosomes were exposed to fluorescent stains for differentiation of the different chromosomes. When a cell undergoes mitosis, the chromosomes condense even further.
What is the relationship between a genome and chromosomes? Previous Next. Order a print copy As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases. We recommend using a citation tool such as this one. Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes.
Cell Division
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